It was first observed that the in vivo injection of plasmid DNA into muscle enabled the expression of foreign genes in the muscle (Wolff, J A, Malone, R W, Williams, P, et al. Direct gene transfer into mouse muscle in vivo. Science 1990;247:1465-1468.). Since that report, several other studies have reported the ability for foreign gene expression following the direct injection of DNA into the parenchyma of other tissues. Naked DNA was expressed following its injection into cardiac muscle (Acsadi, G., Jiao, S., Jani, A., Duke, D., Williams, P., Chong, W., Wolff, J. A. Direct gene transfer and expression into rat heart in vivo. The New Biologist 3(1), 71-81, 1991.), pig epidermis (Hengge, U. R., Chan, E. F., Foster, R. A., Walker, P. S., and Vogel, J. C. Nature Genetics 10: 161-166 (1995)), rabbit thyroid (M. Sikes, B. O'Malley, M. Finegold, and F. Ledley, Hum. Gene Ther. 5, 837 (1994), lung by intratracheal injection (K. B. Meyer, M. M. Thompson, M. Y. Levy, L. G. Barron, F. C. Szoka, Gene Ther. 2, 450 (1995)), into arteries using a hydrogel-coated angioplasty balloon (R. Riessen et al, Human Gene Ther. 4, 749 (1993)) (G. Chapman et al. Circ. Res. 71, 27 (1992)), melanoma tumors (R. G. Vile and I. R art, Cancer Res. 53, 962 (1993)) and rat liver [(Malone, R. W. et al. JBC 269:29903-29907 (1994)) (Hickman, M. A. Human Gene Therapy 5:1477-1483 (1994))].
Another important target tissue for gene therapy is the mammalian liver, given its central role in metabolism and the production of serum proteins. A variety of tecniques have been developed to transfer genes into the liver. Cultured hepatocytes have been genetically modified by retroviral vectors [(Wolff, J. A. et al. PNAS 84:3344-3348 (1987) (Ledley, F. D., Darlington, G. J., Hahn, T. and Woo, S. C. L. PNAS 84:5335-5339 (1987)] and re-implanted back into the livers in animals and in people [(J. R. Chowdhury et al. Science 254, 1802 (1991) (M. Grossman et al. Nature Genetics 6, 335 (1994)]. Retroviral vectors have also been delivered directly to livers in which hepatocyte division was induced by partial hepatectomy [(Kay, M. A. et al Hum Gene Ther. 3:641-647 (1992) (Ferry, N., Duplessis, O., Houssin, D., Danos, O. and Heard, J.-M. PNAS 88:8377-8381 (1991) (Kaleko, M., Garcia, J. V. and Miller, A. D. Hum Gene THer. 2:27-32 (1991)]. The injection of adenoviral vectors into the portal or systemic circulatory systems leads to high levels of foreign gene expression that is transient [(L. D. Stratford-Perricaudet, M. Levrero, J. F. Chasse, M. Perricaudet, P. Briand, Hum. Gene Ther. 1, 241 (1990) (H. A. Jaffe et al. Nat. Genet. 1, 372 (1992) (Q. Li, M. A. Kay, M. Finegold, L. D. Stratford-Perricaudet, S. L. C. Woo, Hum. Gene Ther. 4, 403 (1993)]. Non-viral transfer methods have included polylysine complexes of asialoglycoproteins that are injected into the system circulation [Wu, G. Y. and Wu, C. H. J. Biol. Chem. 263:14621-14624 (1988)].
Foreign gene expression has also been achieved by repetitively injecting naked DNA in isotonic solutions into the liver parenchyma of animals treated with dexamethasone [(Malone, R. W. et al. JBC 269:29903-29907 (1994) (Hickman, M. A. Human Gene Therapy 5:1477-1483 (1994)]. Plasmid DNA expression in the liver has also been achieved via liposomes delivered by tail vein or intraportal routes [(Kaneda, Y., Kunimitsu, I. and Uchida, T. J. Biol. Chem. 264:12126-12129 (1989) (Soriano, P. et al. PNAS 80:7128-7131 (1983) Kaneda, Y., Iwai, K. and Uchida, T. Science 243:375-378 (1989)].
Despite this progress, there is still a need for a gene transfer method that can efficiently and safely cause the expression of foreign genes in the liver in a and/or repetitive manner.